Joan of Arc was condemned for heresy and burned at the stake in 1431 in Rouen because her refusal to wear women's clothing, her visions that she attributed to saints, and her political and military role challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and the royal power of the time.
At the beginning of the 15th century, France finds itself mired in the midst of the Hundred Years' War, a major conflict between the kingdom of France and that of England over who has the right to the French throne. It's total chaos: French territory is divided, with English armies occupying part of the country and internal struggles between the Armagnacs (loyal to the future king Charles VII) and the Burgundians (allied with the English). On the religious front, it is a very strict time where the slightest unusual action or supernatural appearance is quickly suspected of heresy or witchcraft by the Catholic Church, which is very powerful and influential at that time. Joan arrives just at this moment, claiming to have received voices from God ordering her to liberate France from the English. It is no surprise, therefore, that she quickly becomes the center of the political and religious tensions of the time.
The judges mainly criticize Jeanne for wearing masculine clothing, which at the time was seen as a direct violation of religious and social rules. But that's not all: she is also accused of claiming to hear divine voices (those of Saint Catherine, Saint Michael, and Saint Margaret), which does not sit well with religious authorities. She is outright accused of having been in contact with the devil, of showing spiritual pride, and of willfully refusing to submit to the authority of the Church, claiming that her revelations come directly from God. These accusations were ideal for completely discrediting Jeanne in the eyes of the people, weakening her politically, and ultimately justifying her condemnation.
The trial takes place in Rouen in 1431, held by a court controlled by the English and their Burgundian allies. From the outset, it is clearly a sensitive political and religious matter: Jeanne not only poses a direct threat to English interests but also challenges the authority of the Church. During the interrogations, the judges make Jeanne's life difficult, using various tactics to try to trap or discredit her visions and divine claims. She is accused of wearing men's clothing, having suspect visions, and particularly of claiming direct communication with God, which greatly unsettles the clergy of the time. The true issue behind all this is obviously to discredit the King of France Charles VII, since it was Jeanne who helped him ascend to the throne. Condemning her for heresy is, therefore, a way to discredit her entire camp in the eyes of public opinion. This trial is not exactly impartial; the deck is stacked, and everyone knows it more or less from the start.
Joan of Arc is condemned as a heretic in May 1431, after a trial led by pro-English theologians and clergy. She is primarily accused of wearing male clothing and claiming to hear heavenly voices, which her accusers deemed demonic. Despite temporarily signing an abjuration (a sort of recantation), she eventually resumes her male attire, which her judges consider a serious and definitive relapse. She is taken to the Old Market Square in Rouen, tied to a stake, and burned alive on May 30, 1431, at just 19 years old. Her body is burned two more times to leave no relics behind. This brutal execution causes shock and emotion throughout the population, leaving a lasting mark on the history of France.
Nearly 25 years after Jeanne's death, the political context changes radically: the Hundred Years' War is nearing its end, and King Charles VII is firmly established on his throne. In 1456, under pressure from Jeanne's family and with royal support, the Church decides to reopen her case. This time, everything is reviewed: contradictory testimonies, biased methods of the first trial, manipulations... everything resurfaces. Investigators find that the procedure conducted against her in Rouen was riddled with irregularities and was clearly aimed at discrediting Jeanne as a heretic. Ultimately, the ecclesiastical justice system completely overturns the previous conviction and solemnly proclaims her innocence. Jeanne d'Arc is thus officially rehabilitated. Much later, in 1920, she will even be canonized by the Catholic Church, becoming Saint Joan of Arc.
The exact location where Joan of Arc was burned at the stake, the Place du Vieux-Marché in Rouen, is now marked by a commemorative cross and houses a modern church dedicated to her memory called the Church of Saint Joan of Arc.
Although condemned for heresy by a pro-English ecclesiastical court, Joan of Arc was rehabilitated during an official revision trial organized in 1456 under the authority of Pope Callistus III, declaring her condemnation unjust.
One of the most controversial accusations against Joan of Arc was that she wore male clothing. Later, it was demonstrated that this behavior was intended to better protect her modesty and safety during the war, and this accusation was strongly challenged during her rehabilitation.
Just before her execution, after signing a recantation under heavy pressure, Joan of Arc quickly backtracked on this retraction. This reversal of her word was used by her judges as a sign of unrepentance, thereby justifying her final condemnation.
The trial of Joan of Arc began in February 1431 and lasted about three months. It mainly took place in Rouen, which was occupied by the English. The investigation consisted primarily of repetitive and exhausting interrogations, during which Joan was questioned about her faith, her visions, and her actions. The court sought to obtain confessions or compromising statements in order to justify her condemnation.
After the end of the Hundred Years' War and the restoration of the French kingdom under Charles VII, a new rehabilitation trial was initiated in 1456 at the request of Joan's family and the King. The previous verdict was overturned after highlighting the irregularities and injustices of the first trial. Joan was thus restored to her honor, gradually becoming an iconic figure and a national symbol of France.
At the time of Joan of Arc, France was engulfed in the Hundred Years' War, which pitted the Kingdom of France against the Kingdom of England. Joan posed a significant military and symbolic threat to the English. Her arrest, trial for heresy, and execution aimed to undermine the morale of the French and discredit Charles VII, whose legitimacy she actively supported.
Although the trial formally followed certain legal procedures of the time, it was largely influenced by political motivations. Jeanne was deprived of appropriate legal counsel, kept in difficult conditions, confronted by hostile theologians, and trapped by questions aimed at condemning her. Many today consider her trial to have been unjust and technically fraudulent, even by medieval standards.
In 1920, the Catholic Church officially canonized Joan of Arc, recognizing her sainthood and proclaiming her the secondary patron saint of France. Today, she is celebrated as a heroine and an exemplary martyr for her piety, moral strength, and courage in the face of persecution.
Joan of Arc was accused of heresy mainly because she claimed to hear divine voices and wore men's clothing, acts deemed contrary to the strict religious doctrines of the time. The ecclesiastical authorities, under English influence, saw these actions as evidence of disobedience and a heretical presumption to communicate directly with God without the Church's intermediary.
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